Neuroscience

Overview

Neuroscience is a multidisciplinary field that focuses on the components, functions, and dysfunctions of the human brain and nervous system at every level. It reaches from the earliest stages of embryonic development to dysfunctions and degeneration later in life and from the individual molecules shaping the functions of neurons to the study of the complex system dynamics that drive our thoughts and dictate our behaviors.

Many practical applications could benefit from neuroscience research, including the development of treatments for neurological and psychiatric disorders such as epilepsy, learning disabilities, cerebral palsy, and anxiety, as well as Alzheimer’s disease and other neurodegenerative disorders.

KEY DEVELOPMENTS

Neuroengineering A brain–machine interface maps neural impulses from the brain and translates these signals to computers. Its potential applications are wideranging: Augmenting vision, other senses, and physical mobility; direct mindto- computer interfacing; and computer-assisted memory recall and cognition are within the theoretical realms of possibility. However, headlines about mindreading chip implants remain more in the realm of science fiction. 

Perhaps the most encouraging and mature example of a brain–machine interface is the recent development of an artificial retina. People with certain incurable retinal diseases are blind because the light-detecting cells in their retinas, which convert light into corresponding electrical signals sent to the brain, do not work. To restore sight, the Stanford Artificial Retina Project aims to take video images and use electrodes planted in the eye to simulate the electronic signals in a pattern that a functional retina would normally produce. Other brain–machine interfaces—such as one translating brain activity controlling motor functions into signals that can be sent to an artificial prosthetic limb—are being developed.

Neurohealth Neurodegeneration is a major challenge as humans live longer. Diseases like Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s surge in frequency with age. In the United States, the annual cost of Alzheimer’s treatment is projected to soar from $305 billion in 2020 to $1 trillion by 2050. Alzheimer’s is characterized by the accumulation of the proteins amyloid beta and tau into toxic aggregates. As the brain regions where tau accumulates are those most cognitively impacted, there is reasonable consensus that tau more directly causes the neural death responsible for dementia.

Neurodiscovery Understanding the science of the brain could reveal the neural basis of addiction and chronic pain. This would be helpful in tackling the opioid epidemic by, for example, enabling new preventative therapies that alleviate significant drivers of opioid use. Neuroscience is also identifying brain mechanisms involved in relapse, which could help with finding effective treatments and identifying individuals more likely to relapse and therefore in greater need of these therapies.

Over the Horizon

Tackling Alzheimer’s and Other Conditions While current Alzheimer’s treatments are less effective than desired given decades of research, there is reason for cautious optimism in the coming years. The potential for early detection prior to the onset of cognitive impairment is higher than ever before. Current diagnostic tools can cheaply test for biomarkers from blood plasma and can be paired with more accurate but expensive spinal taps and positron emission topography scans for toxic tau and amyloid beta buildup. New drugs are being tested that may actively slow cognitive decline in patients already exhibiting disease symptoms.

Neuroscience research could help further develop brain-controlled artificial limbs and neural prostheses for seizure treatment. If a probe were implanted into an area of the brain prone to seizures, it might be possible to predict the state of that area and warn of an imminent seizure. As understanding of the mathematics of our neural computations increases, these computational models may influence the development of artificial intelligence (AI). For example, AI models typically require large amounts of data to train on, whereas humans can learn languages with much less training data. Better understanding the mathematical principles that define how brains compute may therefore improve AI.

Molecular and Genetic Atlases of the Brain A brain atlas is a comprehensive map that helps researchers visualize brain anatomy, genes, or functional features and allows them to measure and compare healthy and diseased brains. Recent advances in molecular and genetic tools now enable “bottom-up” brain mapping, integrating neuronal wiring, gene expression, and electrical activity to compare brains. These atlases have illuminated genetic mechanisms in Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s disease, guiding rational drug design. Enabled by funding from the National Institutes of Health’s Brain Research Through Advancing Innovative Neurotechnologies (BRAIN) Initiative and by falling sequencing costs, researchers can now map over one hundred million cells in a single study. Future atlases could potentially cost under $10,000 to build, accelerating neuroscience discovery and therapeutic innovation.

Organoid Models of Human Brain Development and Disease Organoid models are three-dimensional cellular structures derived from human pluripotent stem cells that mimic key features of human brain tissue and its development. These organoids enable human-specific disease research and personalized study of neurological disorders without direct experimentation on humans. Transplanted into mice to study brain diseases, they can be used to screen therapies in an environment that resembles a human one.